WHAT IS THIS PROJECT?
Increasing research use in schools has been a growing concern in the last decade. The primary goal of this project is to get relevant research into the hands of parents by embedding "Research Findings for Parents" in Elementary School Newsletters. This project arises from a partnership between the Canadian Education Association and OISE's Research Supporting Practice in Education (RSPE) program at the University of Toronto.
Each newsletter provides short summaries of current research on topics of interest to parents and the public. Each issue is based on our best interpretation of the body of research on this topic. Additional resources for educators and parents are also available on this website for each newsletter topic.
We encourage you to share these results with staff, parents and students via your school newsletter or website. You are free to reproduce and distribute this material in any form provided that you reproduce the entire commentary and credit it to the two sponsors.
We welcome your comments on the content, format or ideas for topics. Please email: rspe@oise.utoronto.ca
** JUNE 2011 UPDATE **
The project has now produced five Research for Parents newsletters, which are distributed to CEA subscribers and posted shortly after distribution on the Research Findings for Parents website. The website is maintained regularly and provides additional resources and references for each newsletter issue.
Go ahead! Discover your KM IQ!
ISSUE 10:
CAN WE ACCURATELY PREDICT A STUDENT'S FUTURE SUCCESS?
English Version
La Version Francaise
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES:
Promoting Parental Involvement, Improving Student Outcomes by Gina Gianzero: This paper discusses how different forms of parental involvement increases student success in school. [pdf file]
Ontario Ministry of Education: This site provides tips on a variety of ways parents may help their struggling children. [website]
Special Needs Opportunity Window: This link provides web based resources and community organizations that support parents whose children may have special needs.[website]
People for Education: This site provides tip sheets to parents on various ways that they can help support their child in school. The tip sheets are offered in 19 different languages. [website]
RESEARCH REFERENCES INFORMING THIS ISSUE:
Badian, N. (1988). The Prediction of Good and Poor Reading Before Kindergarten Entry: A Nine-Year Follow-Up. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 21(2), 98-103.
Brownell M., Roos, N., Fransoo, R., Guevrèmont, A., MacWilliam, L., Derksen, S., Dik, N., Bogdanovic, B., & Sirski, M. (2004). How do educational outcomes vary with socioeconomic status? Key findings from the Manitoba Child Health Atlas 2004. Winnipeg, MB. Manitoba Centre for Health Policy.
Bowers, A. (2007). Grades and graduation: Using K-12 longitudinal cohort data to predict on-time graduation. Paper presented to the American Educational research Association, Chicago.
Gleason, P., and Dynarski, M. (2002). Do we know whom to serve? Issues in using risk factors to identify dropouts. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 7(1), 25-41.
Morgan, P., Farkas, G. and Wu, Q. (2009). Five-Year Growth Trajectories of Kindergarten Children with Learning Difficulties in Mathematics. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42(4), 306.
OECD (2010). Pathways to success: How knowledge and skills at age 15 shape future lives in Canada. Paris: OECD.
ISSUE 9:
HOW EFFECTIVE IS SEX EDUCATION?
English Version
La Version Francaise
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES:
Manitoba Healthy Schools: This website gives advice to parents, teenagers and teachers on the realities of sexual health. It outlines a section on how parents can talk to their children about sex [website]
The Sex Education and Information Council of Canada: SIECCAN is a Canadian non-profit education organization with the mission of informing the public about all aspects of human sexuality. This website links to a resource page with articles on sexual health.[website]
Alberta Health Services: This link provides a guide for parents on sexuality and developmental disability. The document was prepared by the Calgary Health Region and includes information for parents, tips on ways they may to talk to their children and a list of further resources.[website]
The Society of Obstetricians and Gynecologists of Canada: This webpage includes a focus on information and tools for parents to guide their children to be sexually healthy. There are also hypothetical scenarios for parents to discuss and role-play with their children.[website]
PFLAG Canada: PFLAG Canada is a national organization helping Canadians struggling with issues surrounding sexual orientation and gender identity. This link provides information for parents trying to understand their children, links to useful websites and a list of readings that may be of interest. [website]
RESEARCH REFERENCES INFORMING THIS ISSUE:
Bennett, S.E., & Assefi, N.P. (2005). School-based teenage pregnancy prevention programs: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Adolescent Health. 36(1), 72-81.
Duke, T. (2011). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth with disabilities: a meta-synthesis. Journal of LGBT Youth. 8, 1-52.
Goodson, P., Buhi, E,. & Dunsmore, M.S. (2006). Self-esteem and adolescent sexual behaviours, attitudes, and intentions: a systematic review. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38, 310-319.
Harden, A., Oakley, A., & Oliver, S. (2001) Peer-delivered health promotion for young people: A systematic review of different study designs. Health Education Journal, 60(4), 339-353.
Kim, C., & Free, C. (2008). Recent evaluations of the peer-led approach in adolescent sexual health education: A systematic review, Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 40(3), 144-152.
McKay, A., Fisher, W., Maticka-Tyndale, E., & Barrett, M. (2001). Adolescent sexual health education does it work? Can it work better? An analysis of recent research and media reports, The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 10(3/4), 127-136.
Oakley, A., & Olive, S. (2001). Peer-delivered health promotion for young people: A systematic review of different study designs. Health Education Journal. 60(4),339-353.
Oakley, A., & Fullerton, D., &Holland, J., & Arnold, S., & France-Dawson, D., & Kelly, P., &McGrellis, S. (1995) Sexual health education interventions for young people: A methodological review. British Medical Journal, 310(6973), 158-162.
Rottermann, M., (2008). “Trends in teen sexual behaviour and condom use.”, Health Matters. Statistics Canada Catelogue no. 82-003-XPE • Health Reports, 19(3). http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-003-x/2008003/article/10664-eng.pdf (accessed April 24, 2011).
Underhill, K., Montgomery, P., & Operario, D. (2007). Sexual abstinence only programmes to prevent HIV infection in high income countries: systematic review. Retrieved April 10, 2011, from http://www.bmj.com/content/335/7613/248.full
Wainwright, P., Thomas, J., & Jones, M. (2000). Health promotion and the role of the school nurse: a systematic review. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 32(5), 1083-1091.
ISSUE 8:
HOW BEST TO MOTIVATE STUDENTS?
English Version
La Version Français
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES:
Canadian Education Association: This article from Education Canada Magazine presents ways to engage students through effective questioning. Parents can try these strategies at home with their children. [Website]
Concordia University: This website provides links to detailed tips that parents and educators can implement to encourage children to improve in their academics. [Website]
Scholastic: Scholastic provides information on children’s learning styles and a short quiz to help you determine your child’s needs. [Website]
Scholastic: Scholastic provides practical suggestions that parents can implement to motivate their children to succeed. [Website]
Ontario Ministry of Education: This website provides a link to a report entitled “Me Read, No Way” with practical strategies on motivational strategies to improve reading among boys. [Website]
RESEARCH REFERENCES INFORMING THIS ISSUE:
Brophy, Jere. (2004). Motivating Students to Learn. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Hidi, S., & Harackiewics, J. (2000). Motivating the academically unmotivated: A critical issue for the 21st century, Review of Educational Research, 70 (2), 151-179.
National Research Council Institute of Medicine (2003). Engaging schools: Fostering high school students’ motivation to learn. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Palardy, Michael. (1999). Some strategies for motivating students. NASSP Bulletin, 83, 116 -121.
Perry, N. E, Turner, J. C., & Meyer, D. K. (2006). Classrooms as context for motivating Learning. In Alexander, P. A., & Winne, P. H. (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (327-345). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
ISSUE 7:
HOW CAN WE PREVENT HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS?
English Version
La Version Française
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES:
GLOBAL VOICES IN CANADA: What Did You Do in School Today?: This article looks at the importance of student engagement in high schools. [pdf file]
In Canada: 20 minutes to change a life?: The article discusses the positive impact of supportive adult attention on students facing challenges in high school. [pdf file]
National Center on Secondary Education and Transition: This website provides tips for parents on strategies that promote graduation and school achievement. [website]
Ontario Ministry of Education: This website provides options for parents to help children graduate from secondary school. [website]
School Leavers: Understanding the Lived Reality of Student Disengagement from Secondary School: This report was prepared by Resource Group The Hospital for Sick Children For the Ontario Ministry of Education and Training, Special Education Branch, Toronto, Canada. [pdf file]
What Did You Do in School Today?: This report discusses the need for social, academic and intellectual engagement for adolescents learners. [pdf file]
RESEARCH REFERENCES INFORMING THIS ISSUE:
Balfanz, R. et al. (2007), “Preventing Student Disengagement and Keeping Students on the Gradation Path in Urban Middle-Grades Schools: Early Identification and Effective Interventions” in Educational Psychologist, Vol. 42, No. 4, pp. 223-235.
Hammond, C., Linton, D., Smink, J., & Drew, S. (2007). Dropout risk factors and exemplary programs. Clemson, SC: National Dropout Prevention Center, Communities In Schools, Inc.
Jerald, C. D. (2006). Identifying potential dropouts: Key lessons for building an early warning system. Washington, DC: American Diploma Project Network, Achieve, Inc.
Lyche, C.S. (2010). Taking on the completion challenge: A literature review on policies to prevent drop out and early school leaving. Paris: OECD
Mac Iver, D.J. and M. A. Mac Iver (2009), Beyond the Indicators: An Integrated School-level Approach to Dropout Prevention, The George Washington University Center for Equity and Excellence in Education, Arlington
Rumberger, R.W. and Lim, S.A. (2008), Why Students Drop Out of School: A Review of 25 Years of Research, California Dropout Research Project, Santa Barbara.
ISSUE 6:
HOW CHILDREN LEARN TO READ
English Version
La Version Française
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES:
Foundations for Literacy: An Evidence Based Toolkit for the Effective Reading and Writing Teacher: [pdf file]. Although this was written for teachers, there are many useful strategies that may easily be implemented at home.
Ministry of Education, Government of Ontario: The Government of Ontario provides tips for parents on helping children learn to read. [website]
Peel District School Board, Literacy and Numeracy Tip Sheets: This site provides 16 tip sheets on helping children improve their literacy skills. [website]
Reading and Language: Building Literacy Skills Everyday: This website provides practical tips on how parents can support literacy skills through daily activities (i.e. going to the doctor's office or grocery shopping) [website]
The Government of Alberta: This website provides information for parents and teachers on literacy the range of essential literacy skills and strategies. This site is available in French as well. [website]
Toronto District School Board, Parenting and Family Literacy Centres: This website provides free school based programs to support children’s early literacy through play. There are translations available on the program’s key features in 16 languages. [website]
TVO Website for Parents: Parents will find videos and related links about how children learn to read on this website. [website]
Quebec English Literacy Alliance: A list of literacy resources can be found on this website for children and families. [website]
RESEARCH REFERENCES INFORMING THIS ISSUE:
Armbruster, B. B., Lehr, F., Osborn, J., Adler, R., & Noonis, L., (2001) The research building blocks for teaching children to read: Put reading first. Retrieved September 28, 2010, from National Reading Panel Web site: http://www.nifl.gov/publications/pdf/PRFbooklet.pdf
Early Years Education Ontario Network. (2010). Early Literacy. In Eye on Early Years Education and Ontario Network. Retrieved Oct. 15, 2010, from http://eyeonkids.ca/early-literacy
McCardle, P., & Chhabra, V. (Eds.). (2004). The voice of evidence in reading research. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
Pelletier, J., Reeve R., Halewood, C., (2006). Young children’s knowledge building and literacy development through knowledge forum. Early Education and Development, 17(3), 323-346.
Torgesen, K. Joseph., Wagner, K. R., Rashotte, A. C., Herron, & J., Lindamood, P. (2010). Computer-assisted instruction to prevent early reading difficulties in students at risk for dyslexia: Outcomes from two instructional approaches. Annals of Dyslexia, 60(4) 40-56.
ISSUE 5:
WHAT DOES RESEARCH SAY ABOUT TEACHING QUALITY?
English Version
La Version Française
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES:
Teacher Quality Resources: The Teacher Quality Digest is a publication that provides practical information on specific areas related to qualities of effective teachers. [Website]
Teacher Quality Research: TQR is a partnership between researchers at Florida State University and the University of Wisconsin at Madison. The purpose of TQR is to provide research evidence on the characteristics and education of effective teachers. [Website]
Take Part: TakePart.com is an independent online community that provides information on social, environmental, political and cultural issues in the United States. There are 19 educational issues published in this website, including one on Teacher Quality. [Website]
RESEARCH REFERENCES INFORMING THIS ISSUE:
Darling-Hammond, L. (1999) Teacher Quality and Student Achievement: A Review of State Policy Evidence. Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy, University of Washington. Available: [pdf file]
- Studies have found a somewhat stronger and more consistently positive influence of education coursework on teachers' effectiveness.
- Other studies of the effects of teacher experience on student learning have found a relationship between teachers' effectiveness and their years of experience, but not always a significant one or an entirely linear one.
- A number of studies suggest that the typical problems of beginning teachers are lessened for those who have had adequate preparation prior to entry.
- Research on teachers' personality traits and behaviours has produced few consistent findings, with the exception of studies finding a recurring positive relationship between student learning and teachers' 'flexibility,' 'creativity,' or 'adaptability.'
Day, C. and Leitch, R. (2007). The Continuing Professional Development of Teachers: Issues of Coherence, Cohesion and Effectiveness. International Handbook of School Effectiveness and Improvement. Springer Netherlands: 707-726.
Hanushek, E. and Welch, F. (2006). Teacher Quality. Handbook of the Economics of Education, Volume 2. North Holland.
- Perhaps most remarkable is the finding that a master's degree has no systematic relationship to teacher quality as measured by student outcomes.
- What matters most? Certainly NOT the 'pimple' of gender and socio-economic differences, nor school structural arrangements of interest to 'school effectiveness' researchers, but the 'pumpkin' of quality teaching and learning provision, supported by strategic teacher professional development!
ISSUE 4:
WHAT DOES RESEARCH SAY ABOUT GROUPING BY ABILITY?
English Version
Version Française
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES:
Ministry of Education, Government of British Columbia: The Government of British Columbia provides tips for teachers and parents on career advice and planning for students taking Applied courses in high school. [Website]
The Disadvantage of Tracking and Ability Grouping - A Look at Cooperative Learning as an Alternative: This article provides an alternative approach to ability grouping. [Available for Download]
Duke University, Talent Identification Program: The Expert's Forum on the discussion of ability grouping provides answers to the following questions: What is Ability Grouping? How does ability grouping compare to tracking? Why has ability grouping been so controversial over the years? [Website]
Settlement.Org: This website provides Ontario parents with advice and information on high school courses and choices for their children. The information gives an insight to parents on whether their children should take Academic or Applied courses, and where it leads them in career choices. [Website]
RESEARCH REFERENCES INFORMING THIS ISSUE:
Boaler, J., William, D., and Brown, M. (2000). Students' Experiences of Ability Grouping: Disaffection, Polarisation and the Construction of Failure. British Educational Research Journal, 26(5): 631-648.
Eder, D. (1981). Ability Grouping as a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A Micro-Analysis of Teacher-Student Interaction. Sociology of Education, 54(3): 151-162.
- In general, the results of this study indicate that the common practice of ability grouping should be questioned. (pg. 160)
- The results of this student clearly indicate that homogeneous grouping compounds initial learning problems by placing those children who have learning problems in the same groups. (pg. 160)
Gamoran, A. (1993). Alternative Uses of Ability Grouping in Secondary Schools: Can We Bring High-Quality Instruction to Low-Ability Classes? American Journal of Education, 102(1): 1-22.
Gamoran, A. (1992). Synthesis of Research: Is Ability Grouping Equitable? Educational Leadership, 50(2): 11-17.
- Given poor instruction, neither heterogeneous nor homogeneous grouping can be effective; with excellent instruction, either may succeed. (pg. 11)
- Little evidence supports the claim that tracking or grouping by ability produces higher overal achievement than heterogeneous grouping. (pg. 12)
- This analysis has shown grouping has no significant overall benefits in either science or mathematics. (pg. 221)
- In both subjects, students in the high groups learn somewhat more and students in the low groups learn less than comparable students in non-grouped schools.
- Streaming, it is argued, can play a major role in polarizing students' attitudes into pro- and anti-school camps. (pg. 348)
- At the primary level, the research suggests that children in unstreamed classes have healthier and more positive attitudes towards school than children in streamed classes and that this is particularly true for those in lower ability. (pg. 348)
- There is clear evidence that low ability groups tend to include disproportionate numbers of pupils in low-socio-economic status, ethnic minorities, boys, and those born in the summer. (pg. 349)
- School effectiveness studies have no identified pupil grouping as a key characteristic of effective schools. (pg. 349)
ISSUE 3:
WHAT DOES RESEARCH SAY ABOUT GRADE RETENTION
English Version
Version Française
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES:
The Association of Chief Psychologists with Ontario School Boards: This website provides a list of factors for parents and teachers to consider when deciding on grade retention. [Website]
Alfie Kohn’s website: Kohn’s publications focus on a variety topics in education and parenting in the United States. Although none of his research is directly linked to grade retention, some of his work (for example, grades and assessment) can be associated with grade retention. For a list of his books and articles, visit his website: [Website]
Hot Topics: In-Grade Retention: This American website provides a list of websites on grade retention. For example, “When Retention is Recommended, What Should Parents Do?” [Website]
RESEARCH REFERENCES INFORMING THIS ISSUE:
Jacob, B. and Lefgren, L. (2007). The Effect of Grade Retention on High School Completion. NBER Working Paper Series.
- Grade retention leads to a modest increase in the probability of dropping out for older students, but has no significant effect on younger students.
Jimerson, S.R. (2009). Meta-analysis of Grade Retention Research: Implications for Practice in the 21st Century. School Psychology Review, 30(3): 420-437.
- Studies examining the efficacy of grade retention on academic achievement and socioemotional adjustment that have been published during the past decade report results that are consistent with the converging evidence and conclusions of research from earlier in the century that fail to demonstrate that grade retention provides greater benefits to students with academic or adjustment difficulties than does promotion to the next grade.
- In isolation, neither social promotion nor grade retention will solve our nation's educational ills nor facilitate the academic success of children. Instead, attention must be directed toward alternative strategies.
- Although this and similar studies indicate that students either show declines in achievement or perform no better after repeating a grade than continuously promoted students, the conclusion that no students improve is, nevertheless, incorrect.
- Indeed, a small minority of repeaters did significantly improve achievement scores after retention. The problem is that there is no foolproof way to predict which students are likely to benefit from the practice or if they would have shown the same improvement without retention.
ISSUE 2:
WHAT DOES RESEARCH SAY ABOUT CLASS SIZE REDUCTION?
English Version
La Version Française
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES:
Ontario Ministry of Education: The Class-Size Tracker allows the public to see the primary (JK to Grade 3) class size of every school in the province of Ontario. [Class_Size Tracker]
Reducing Class Size: Promises and Perils: This article discusses what's good about smaller classes and why caution is needed in class size reduction. [Available for Download]
Class Size Reduction: What the Literature Suggests About What Works: This report, published by the Canadian Education Association, looks at a variety of studies and research done on class size reduction. [Available for Download]
At Issue: What Matters About Class Size?: At Issue, published by the Canadian Education Association, is "a series that explores current areas of debate within the educational community". This article looks at why reducing class size is important to the improvement of teaching and learning. [Available for Download]
The Elementary Teachers' Federation of Ontario (ETFO): The ETFO has written a research report on how class size makes a difference. [Website] [Available for Download]
BC Teachers' Federation: The Teacher Newsmagazine, published by BC Teachers' Federation, looks at the supporting research in class size reduction. [Available for Download]
C.D. Howe Institute: This report argues that smaller class sizes aren't always better. [Available for Download]
Teaching Practice Resources: This website provides a list of essential search engines for teacher and student resources. [Website]
Centre for Innovation in Mathematics Teaching: The Centre for Innovation in Mathematics Teaching focuses on research and curriculum development in Mathematics teaching and learning. The website provides a variety of resources for mathematics teachers. [Website]
Web Resources for Mathematics Teachers: This link provides a list of resources, produced by Ottawa Catholic School Board, for mathematics teachers. [Available for Download]
RESEARCH REFERENCES INFORMING THIS ISSUE:
Anh, J. and D.J. Brewer (2009). "What Do We Know About Reducing Class and School Size?" in Sykes, G., B. Schneider, and D.N. Plank, Handbook of Education Policy Research. American Educational Research Association, Routledge: 426-437.
Bascia, N. and E. Fredua-Kwarteng (2008). Class Size Reduction: What The Literature Suggests About What Works. Canadian Education Association.Bascia, N. and E. Fredua-Kwarteng (2008). "Reducing Class Size: Promises and Perils." Education Canada 48(4): 30-33.
- When classes are reduced, students tend to learn more (at least by a modest amount), as measured by standardized test results, and their engagement in learning is enhanced, as demonstrated by classroom behavior, attitude, and effort; some studies suggest that students expend more academic effort and initiate more of their own learning activities in smaller classes.
- The enthusiasm for class size reduction is an example of the kind of 'magical thinking' that is unfortunately common among educators, policy makers, and researchers alike.
Bascia, N. (2009). Reducing Class Size: What Do We Know? Canadian Education Association.
- The research confirms that class size reduction does provide the environment in which teachers can teach differently. In smaller classes, they interact with individual students more frequently and use a greater variety of instructional strategies. They can create more opportunities for higher order co-construction of meaning by students. They also may spend out-of-classroom work time on more creative planning (and less on routine marking), and they may interact more frequently with other teachers and adults in support of classroom teaching.
- But the research also suggests that the full gains of class size reduction cannot be achieved if it is implemented without paying attention to other factors that support innovative practice.
Bohrnstedt, G.W. and B.M. Stecher (2002). What We Have Learned About Class Size Reduction in California. CSR Research Consortium Capstone Report. California: California Department of Education.
Finn, J. and C.M. Achilles (1999). "Tennessee's Class Size Study: Findings, Implications, Misconceptions." Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 21(2): 97-109.
Guillemette, Y. (2005). School Class Size: Smaller Isn't Better. C.D. Howe Institute.Milton, P. (2006). "What Matters About Class Size?" Education Canada 46(3): 1-2.
Stecher, B.M., G.W. Bohrnstedt, et al. (2001). "Class-Size Reduction in California: A Story of Hope, Promise, and Unintended Consequences." The Phi Delta Kappan 82(9): 670-674.
Zahorik, J.A., A. Molnar, and P. Smith (2003). Sage Advice: Research on Teaching in Reduce-Size Classes. Temple, Arizona: Education Policy Studies Laboratory.
ISSUE 1:
WHAT DOES RESEARCH SAY ABOUT HOMEWORK?
English Version
La Version Française
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES:
The Homework Spot: This website offers advice for K-12 education organized by subject and grade level. There is also links for both parents and teachers. The link for parents has a number of resources and publications. [The Homework Spot]
Literacy and Numeracy Tip Sheets for Parents: Peel district school board in Ontario has created 35 tips sheets for parents to help students with literacy and numeracy skills. [Available for Download]
Free Monthly E-Mail Package of Parent-Child Activities: A free monthly list of learning activities for pre-school children and elementary, middle school and secondary students [Subscribe]
106 Ways Parents Can Help Students Achieve by Kristen J. Amundson: This booklet (from the American Association of School Administrators) offers a number of tips organized by the following categories - learning begins at home; using the newspaper for better learning; make family time = learning time; starting school ready to learn; building self-esteem; improving academic achievement; working with the school; promoting your family's values; peer pressure; preparing for the world of work; good health = good learning; sources of help; learning is everyone's concern [Available for $12 from Amazon]
List of Websites to Help Parents Help their Children: This website contains links for parents on many topics like reading, math, general school work, summer learning and more [Internet4Classrooms]
RESEARCH REFERENCES INFORMING THIS ISSUE:
Bennett, S. and N. Kalish (2006). The case against homework: How homework is hurting our children and what we can do about it. New York, Crown.
Cameron, L. and L. Bartel (2008). Homework Realities: A Canadian Study of Parental Opinions and Attitudes, University of Toronto, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Bartel, Cameron & Associates Inc.
Cooper, H. (1989). "Synthesis of research on homework." Educational Leadership 47(3): 85-91.
- For junior high school students, the benefits of homework increased as the time spent on homework increased, up to 1 to 2 hours of homework a night, and then decreased.
- On the other hand, homework has smaller effects at lower grade levels; however, Cooper still recommended homework to ‘help students develop good study habits, foster positive attitudes toward school, and communicate to students the idea that learning takes work at home as well as at school’.
Cooper, H. (2007). The battle over homework. Thousand Oaks, CA, Corwin Press.
- Homework should have different purposes at different grade levels. In earlier grades (primary), homework should help encourage positive attitudes, habits and character traits. In upper elementary grades (junior), homework should play a more direct role to improve student achievement. In 6th grade and beyond (intermediate/senior), homework should play a role in improving standardized test scores and grades.
- Research findings supported the ’10-minute rule’ where all daily homework assignments combined should take about 10 minutes multiplied by the student’s grade level, but the rule might be increased to 15 minutes if reading is included as a type of homework.
Cooper, H., J. C. Robinson, et al. (2006). "Does Homework Improve Academic Achievement? A Synthesis of Research, 1987-2003." Review of Educational Research 76(1): 1-62.
- Review of research from 1987 to 2003 in the United States suggests there is evidence to support positive influence of homework on achievement.
- Research reported that 7 to 12 hours of homework per week produced the largest benefits, in academic achievement, for grade 12 students.
- Cooper, Robinson and Patall cautioned about too much homework, as its effectiveness diminishes or can become counterproductive.
Kohn, A. (2006). Homework Myth: Why our kids get too much of a bad thing, Cambridge, MA, Da Capo Life Long.Marzano, R. J. and D. J. Pickering (2007). "Special Topic/The Case For and Against Homework." Educational Leadership 64(6): 74-79.
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